Analysis and results Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Analysis and results - Dissertation Example One of the most important questions asked in this survey was the method used by the RNs to screen for PPD. None of the nurses reported using any screening tools for the evaluation of PPD. The commonly used methods for the evaluation of PPD were found to be: asking general questions or identifying risk factors during the postpartum office visit; telephonic questioning when patients called to inquire about any queries, concerns or symptoms that they have; as a part of the documentation for the admissions database during the admission for delivery and during chart review or as a part of the routine history during the obstetric visits. Amongst these, the most common method was chart review or while obtaining obstetric history, during which the two main questions asked were whether the patient has had any prior episodes of PPD in previous pregnancy or a history of pre-existing depression and whether she was taking any medications. This practice is in stark contrast to the recommendations for the screening of PPD in the existing literature. ... â€Å" to develop a rapport with the patients and enable them to share their experiences. This practice is in concordance with the existing literature as some studies advocate the use of simple, open ended questions such as â€Å"Are you sad and depressed?† and â€Å"Have you had a loss of pleasurable activities?† as an initial screen for PPD. The use of such questions helps the women in opening up and sharing their experiences and concerns (Goldbort, 2006). There are also several shortcomings of the above mentioned methods for the screening of PPD. First, for women who are having their first baby, the question whether they experienced PPD in any prior pregnancies becomes void. Similarly, most patients who are experiencing PPD for the first time might not be on any medications and thus the question whether they are using any medications currently, is not of any use in such patients. It is thus important to use effective screening strategies which are designed to encomp ass all patients, including those who are pregnant for the first time, so that none of the patients is missed. The most common setting for PPD identified in this survey was during obstetric visits or on admission for delivery. This was followed by screening for PPD during the postpartum visit. There have been various studies conducted in order to determine the most effective screening method and setting for the screening for postpartum depression. The most appropriate and convenient settings for the screening as recommended by the current literature is during the mother’s post-partum visit or during the well child visit of the baby (Gjerdingen & Yawn, 2007; Callister, Beckstrand, & Corbet, 2010). Moreover, recently, other novel innovative strategies for screening

CJ 450 Counter Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CJ 450 Counter Terrorism - Essay Example ding assignments, what status, rights, and protections would you afford someone who was an American citizen captured in the United States in the act of terrorist violence? How about someone who was a foreign national engage in terrorism in the United States? An American citizen fights American forces abroad? A foreign national, but not a member of a nations military, fighting American forces abroad? Would torture of any of these subjects ever be justified if it could save lives? How serious is the problem of anti-Americanism here at home? Should people be accountable for inciting violence when they glorify violent acts against America but themselves do not engage in it? What remedies are available to the government, if any, to deal with schools, mosques, and charities that indirectly support terrorism while not actually engaging in it? What should the remedies be? Give your overall assessment of the USA PATRIOT ACT. Do you think it has contributed to the lack of terror attacks in the United States since 9/11? If you were in Congress, would you vote to renew the act as is? Would you change anything? Why or why not? The 9/11 attacks upon the United States changed the vast majority of peoples’ perceptions about the importance as well as the necessity for improved and extended counterterrorism units to prevent further bombings.1 Without those attacks my job would not exist within its present format. The federal government the armed forces, the FBI, and the CIA underestimated the ability of Al-Qaeda to launch large-scale attacks within the United States, despite being of its previous bombings of American targets abroad. The Clinton administration had only carried out limited missile strikes against suspected Al-Qaeda bases in the Sudan, and seemed to be aware of that organization’s move to Afghanistan.2 American society has altered drastically in the last couple of decades due to immigration of people from Islamic countries in Asia and the

Article on an international homeland security issue to review Assignment

Article on an international homeland security issue to review - Assignment Example es done by the attack and ensure a quick and full recovery from the trauma while still figuring out ways of preventing the repetition of such attacks. One of the most feared terrorist groups that threaten the United States is the Al- Qaeda group. The group is made up of terrorists mostly from the Middle East that is mostly Muslims with the claim that what they do is the call of Allah, their God. The group was formed around the year 1988 with Osama Bin Laden as the major founder. The group works as a network that has many armies in different countries all over the world under small subdivisions and hence it is not very easy to intercept their communications. Their first major and shocking attack that was felt throughout the world was their attack on the twin towers in the United States of America back in 2001. The attack left scores of people dead and others wounded and this is what made the United States acknowledge the importance of the department of homeland security. Characteristics that make the group stand out from the rest are its suicide attacks. The group beliefs in the utter completion of a mission failure to which, their life is of no use. The group does not believe in hell. The group is of the notion that after their death, they go to heaven and meet Allah waiting for them with the 40 virgins that they are promised. The Al-Qaeda group believes in complete allegiance to the rules that are offered by their leaders without any questions asked. This is for the assurance of their families’ safekeeping and ensuring that they carry out their tasks to the prime of their capabilities, (Bruno 2011). The organization of the group has most of the times been described as being centralized when it comes to decision making but however, the ideology changes to decentralization when it comes to the execution of the decisions made. Experts in the field have argued that the group has over the years broken down into smaller groups that are no longer affiliated with the

Health Psychology Committee Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Health Psychology Committee Report - Essay Example lth Psychology Committee has been mandated with the task of developing a psychiatry division to further enhance our response to mental health issues within the community. The following is results of our health psychology action plan. Seeking to hire and train five additional hospital-associated psychologists with the task of dealing with the wider community in a variety of health-related roles, the following recommendations will be made understanding that health and society are interrelated variables which work together to promote a healthy community. Accordingly, the committee understands and takes into account the important role that society has on the health status of members of its community. Accordingly, â€Å"on a fairly broad level, our society affects the health of individuals by promoting certain values of our culture.† (AUTHOR, 14) Individualist health promotion programs aim to address the health concerns of individuals while structuralism health promotion programs are focused upon addressing health trends such as the outbreak of HIV among high school students, or addressing the mental health issues across a cross-section of society. The social model of health explores both individuals and the s ocial population in determining our conception of health. According to this theoretical paradigm, improved health can be improved by looking at the key environmental and social aspects of what constitutes positive health. This is a theoretical model which has recently gained credence due to its emphasis on social determinants of health. With this in mind, the report aims to specify duties for the five hospital-associated psychologists keeping in mind the interconnectedness of health status and society. Thus, a sociological perspective on health will frame this report. Accordingly, the following positions will need to be filled by the committee: substance abuse counselor; inpatient-only psychologist; child psychologist; adult psychologist. Each of these

Social Policy - Diabetes Essay Example for Free

Social Policy Diabetes Essay Examine a contemporary social issue (which may or may not have been covered during the module) paying particular attention as to why this issue has become problematic and for whom. Also, consider what should be done about your chosen issue and any role that nursing/social work might have in dealing with it. A social issue can be defined as ‘social conditions identified by scientific inquiry and values as detrimental to human well-being’ (Manis 1976). I believe that a social issue can be anything that affects a person in a bad way and affects their standard of living. It could be something from a health problem to something to do with a financial issue within someone’s home. I am going to focus on the health of the public and have chosen to pay attention to the social issue of diabetes type 2. I am going to pay particular attention to why diabetes has become problematic in the community and for who it is causing a problem to. Type 2 diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin to maintain a normal blood glucose level, or your body is unable to use the insulin that is produced (NHS Choices). You are likely to develop type 2 diabetes if you are over the age of 40, have a relative with the condition or are overweight. A person is normally thought to have type 2 diabetes if he or she does not have type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent) or monogenetic diabetes (WHO). Patients that suffer from type 2 diabetes generally are given dietary guidance so that they can manage their blood sugar and they are also advised to take their blood sugar once a day to make sure that it is regular. Patients should also increase physical activity and control their weight. It is important that diabetes type 2 is controlled so that it doesn’t progressively get worse and lead to diabetes type 1 diabetes which would mean the patient would become insulin dependent. Diabetes type 2 is problematic for the patient as during everyday living they have to make sure they are aware of what they are eating and doing to make sure they control their own blood sugar to keep themselves healthy. A patient suffering from type 2 diabetes might feel self conscious at meal times as they may have to eat something different to the people they are dining with. This can cause the person’s self esteem to be decreased and they could be embarrassed to eat around other people as they might feel like they are being segregated from the group. A patient also has to exercise regularly which they might find difficult to fit into their lifestyle but in order to control their blood sugar effectively it should become an important part of their everyday life. It can also be problematic on the health costs. Current estimates suggest that direct health cost of diabetes accounts for 5% of the UK health cost (Payne, Barker 2010). This percentage doesn’t even include the full cost of the problem. There are also costs related to sickness from work, disability and more than 10% of hospital bed days. Since 1996 the number of people diagnosed with diabetes has increased from 1. 4 million to 2. 9 million. Most of these cases will be Type 2 diabetes, because of our ageing population and rapidly rising numbers of overweight and obese people. This suggests to us that the demands on the health service are going to increase which will therefore cost more money. These statistics also tell us that an increase in obesity is going to affect diabetes. Obesity is increasing in the UK such that over half the population are now overweight or obese. This has significant health consequences, causing an increase in the risk of diabetes (Payne, Barker 2010). The government have suggested that obesity is resulting in health costs increasing and life expectancy decreasing. One of the social consequences for a person that is obese or overweight is that they are seen negatively upon and discriminated against. This can happen in all situations in social environments and can affect a person in many different ways such as low self-esteem and depression. Obesity is causing an increase risk of diseases that are associated with it. This will also increase health costs as well as making the health of the public worse. If type 2 diabetes is not controlled then type 1 diabetes can develop. This is worse because the patient becomes dependant on insulin. It usually develops in the teenage years of someone’s life. This has to be given my subcutaneous injection (Payne, Barker 2010), this makes sure that the insulin levels are regular and forms the basis of dietary management. They will also have to regularly check their blood sugars. They will often need monitoring, assessment and treatment of cardiovascular risk factors because they have many features of metabolic syndrome. There are many different complications that are caused by diabetes. If you have diabetes, you are up to five times more likely to develop heart disease or have a stroke (WHO). When the blood glucose levels are increasing it results in the furring and narrowing of your blood vessels which may result in a poor blood supply to the heart. This can lead to a heart attack or a stroke. This doesn’t only put the patient’s life at risk but it also results in a huge cost on the NHS. It can also affect the patient’s family a friends hugely emotionally but also physically if they are in need of care after the event. It can change the patient’s life style dramatically. It is not only the blood vessels near the heart that are affected it is also the blood vessels in the nerves. This sometimes causes a tingling sensation in your limbs. If the nerves in the digestive system are affected a patient may experience nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea or constipation. This will make the patient’s life very uncomfortable. Blood vessels in the retina can become blocked or leaky, or can grow haphazardly. This prevents the light from fully passing through to your retina. If it is not treated, it can damage your vision (NHS Choices). If a patient doesn’t control their blood sugar levels they are very likely to develop serious eye problems. Having an annual eye check up with a specialist, an ophthalmologist, can help to see the signs of an eye problem sooner so that it can be treated. Another problem that diabetes can lead to in a blockage of the blood vessels in the kidney, this makes the kidneys work less efficiently. In very rare cases this can lead to kidney failure and the need for dialysis or even a kidney transplant. Another reason why diabetes affects people’s health and health costs is because 1 in 10 people with diabetes get a foot ulcer (WHO). Damage in the nerves of the foot can mean that small nicks and cuts are not noticed. They will not be noticed because the nerves are damaged the patient with these small cuts won’t feel the pain from them. If these small cuts are not noticed a serious infection can occur and it can lead to the development of a foot ulcer. If patients develop nerve damage they should check their feet every day and report any changes to a nurse or doctor. When a nurse is visiting a patient with diabetes they should look out for sores and cuts that do not heal as well as puffiness and swelling. There are always going to be other side effects to having diabetes but these are the most common. Another problem that diabetes can cause is an increased risk of a miscarriage or stillbirth. It is important that women that are pregnant are aware that they have diabetes so that the blood sugar level can be carefully controlled during the early stages of pregnancy. If it is not carefully controlled there is also an increased risk of the baby developing a birth defect (NHS Choices). Pregnant women with diabetes will usually have their antenatal check-ups in hospital or a diabetic clinic. As a nurse it is important we make sure pregnant women with diabetes are aware of this. This allows the care team to keep a close eye on the patient’s blood sugar levels and control your insulin dosage more easily, if you regulate your blood sugar using insulin. They will also be able to monitor the growth and development of your baby. Pregnant women are also at risk of having larger babies than normal which causes problems during the birth of the baby as well as the late stages of pregnancy. It can cause other problems to the mother during the birth such as ripping on the vagina or even to the stage they have to go through with a suzerain. All of these side affects cost the NHS money. This can be reduced by people eating healthier and exercising so that they do not form the illness of diabetes in the first place. One example of how much diabetes can cost health services is the Lucentis injection. This is a shot that helps to prevent people with severe diabetes going blind but it costs ? 1000. This is a huge amount of money when you put it into proportion to the amount of people that have diabetes in the UK. With around 5,000 new cases a year, NICE is reluctant to recommend the use of Lucentis for treating DMO, diabetic macular oedema (Global Diabetes Community). ‘A report by the NHS entitled Prescribing for Diabetes in England reported that over the last 5 years, the cost of drugs and treatments alone in order to treat people with diabetes had risen by 40% from ? 458.  6 million in 2004/5 to ? 649. 2 million in 2009/10’. These statistics tell us that the number of people in the UK with diabetes has risen. This could be due to the fact that the number of people that are obese in England has risen. The UK is the fattest country in Europe. The number of obese adults is forecast to rise by 73% over the next 20 years from to 26 million people, resulting in more than a million extra cases of type 2 diabetes, heart disease and cancer (Global Diabetes Community). The cost of diabetes in 2010 was 13. 750 billion pounds just for the year on the NHS. This cost includes the treatment, drugs, inpatients and outpatient appointments for diabetes type 1 type 2. There is also other services that are included into the treatment such as the social service. The amount of money that is spent on each type of diabetes for each different area of expenditure can be seen in appendix 1. The cost of in patients with diabetes is the greatest. This is due to the fact when diabetes gets so severe people need time in hospital to recover and be treated for other illnesses that diabetes has caused them. Type 1 diabetes cost 1. 802 billion pounds in 2010 where as diabetes type 2 diabetes cost 11. 718 billion pounds. This is due to the fact type 2 diabetes is more common in the UK. Although it can be controlled by changing your lifestyle it is not always diagnosed and therefore can cause more problems than if the patient was aware they had this condition. There should always be actions in place to try and decrease the number of people in the UK that have diabetes. Published in 2001, The National Service Framework for Diabetes contains nine standards for the provision of high quality diabetes services in what it recognised as a growing area of need. The prevention of type 2 diabetes will play a major part in this because if people are eating healthier and exercising more they are less likely to form diabetes type 2 but if they do people should be able to identify that they have diabetes in order for them to control their own condition. By controlling their own blood sugar they will be less likely to end up in hospital with another illness related to this condition. In order to do this the NHS want to see public awareness campaigns to communicate the seriousness of diabetes and its complications, the risk factors of type 2 diabetes (Young 2011) This should hopefully point the public in the right direction to whether they have diabetes so that they can seek help and advice in order to keep as healthy as possible in their everyday life. It is important that as nurses we give advice to our patients they importance of NHS checkups and healthy living so that patients with diabetes reduce the risk of illness. As a nurse health promotion is always important for any condition. Health promotion has evolved into an extremely broad sphere of activity encompassing health education, lifestyle and preventative approaches (Scriven, Orme 2001). As nurses we have to concentrate on improving the health of our patients and the public. One way in which we can promote health to our patients is while we are working alongside them in hospital is to provide structured information in preparation for stressful events (Macdonald, Bunton 1992). When a patient has diabetes it could mean that we give the patient information about how to manage this condition at home so that they live a healthy lifestyle. There is a lot of substantial evidence that suggests passing on information to the patient and communicating with them reduces anxiety and speeds up recovery time. More recently, the need to adopt more individualised, patient-centred approaches, incorporating a recognition of the importance of self-efficiency beliefs and the wider barriers to taking health action, has been widely recognised (Norton 1998). This could suggest that one patient may just need the advice to be told to them while another patient needs instructions on how to use this advice at home, maybe written down or extra support at home depending on the health and well-being of this particular patient. While I was on placement it was an important job to help the patients chose what they would like to eat the next day by filling in a menu. For a diabetic they would have different choices and then a pudding with less sugar in to the other patients. It was important that as a student nurse helping them I helped to promote the healthier options to all patients in order for them to eat a healthy balanced diet. This would not only mean that they would eat healthier while in hospital but it would also give the patients an idea of what to eat at home to have a balanced diet. The department of health also help to ensure that the public with diabetes are cared for to reduce health costs and to improve the public’s health. One way that they do this is to ensure that local authorities commission a fully funded health check programme and a follow-up action.

Critique on Article The Ends of Happiness Essay Example for Free

Critique on Article The Ends of Happiness Essay Dr Karl Giberson is a professor at Eastern Nazarene College with a PHD in Physics from Rice University. A man approaching his fifties at the writing of this article, Giberson’s solution to his mid-life crisis was to write an article â€Å"The Ends of Happiness†. His article was well written and he tries to impart his experiences with happiness to young adults. In the article, Giberson claims that happiness should be the end result of our efforts and he provides a compelling argument why we should not get caught up in our pursuit of happiness through materialistic gains. However, his arguments to back his thesis are inadequate due to an inherent contradiction in his supporting point and one unproven assumption in his article. Giberson (2006) uses the Candy Experiment with children to prove his point that our ability to withhold satisfaction leads to a â€Å"life time of happiness† (para. 5). He further explains that â€Å"unpleasant means can yield satisfying ends† (2006). This implies that our happiness will increase if we are able to set aside the things that make us happy, and work towards our goal. However, in his later argument, the author seems to imply that the happiest moments in his life, were times when he did not work towards materialistic gains. For instance, he claims he â€Å"lived well†, when he â€Å"left work early† and spent his time with his family (Giberson, 2006, para.12, 13 14). This illustrates his point that the most memorable moments in life comes from relationships as opposed to material gains (Giberson, 2006). While the latter argument supports his thesis, the former contradicts it by implying that happiness is something to be achieved through materialistic gains. This is shown in Giberson’s example about a student graduating with â€Å"greater earning power† (2006) and how this ability â€Å"is the formula for a lifetime of happiness† (Giberson, 2006, para. 5). Furthermore, Giberson’s argument seems to be contingent on one major assumption. That happiness gained from acquiring things, is less meaningful than happiness gained from spending time with family and friends. To illustrate his point, he cites evidence from his own memories. He states that memories gained from family time are clearer than the memories of â€Å"buying his first car† and â€Å"cashing his first paycheck† (Giberson, 2006, para.14). Giberson then applies this line of reasoning to back his thesis by showing us how happiness from material gains alone reduces our overall happiness as our social interactions decrease (Giberson, 2006). However, such opinionated evidence provides weak support to his thesis and even though he did not plan on writing a scientific article, using personal memories to validate such a major assumption weakens his argument substantially. In conclusion, Giberson has indeed written a well-structured editorial with many coherent and interesting points. However, contradicting arguments and one unsupported assumption in the article has undermined his thesis and weakened his argument. Giberson’s thesis would have fared much better had he quoted from valid sources instead of his own personal experiences. Reference Giberson, K. (2006, Mar. Apr.). The Ends Of Happiness. Science Spirit, 17, 6-7.

Community Safety Initiatives | Evaluation

Community Safety Initiatives | Evaluation INTRODUCTION Purpose of this paper is to discuss the main problems confronting those who must evaluate community safety initiatives. In order to do this, the paper first provides an overview of the problem. This is followed by an analysis of support and initiative by governments, technical difficulties, access to data, political pressure, and utilisation. COMMUNITY SAFETY EVALUATION The initial challenge facing every community safety initiative is to meet crime reduction targets whilst also implementing preventative measures to ensure long-term reductions in crime and disorder. Arguably, high quality evaluation can play a role in this as it can help better understand what works and how it works (Morton 2006). According to AG (2007), evaluation is concerned with making value-based judgments about a program. Mallock and Braithwaite (2005:4) define evaluation as â€Å"the systematic examination of a policy, program or project aimed at assessing its merit, value, worth, relevance or contribution†. Any evidence of the benefits and impact of initiatives will help to influence local partners in commissioning decisions. However, according to Morton (2006), some evaluators have been more able to undertake evaluations than others. As Read and Tilley (2000) claim, evaluation stage continues to be a major weakness of a community safety program. Proper evaluations of community safety initiatives are rare (Community Safety Centre 2000). According to Rhodes (2007), a range of policies and programs has been established with the aim of achieving greater community participation and involvement leading to increased community capacity. However there has been little evaluation of this approach or the specific programs. Read and Tilley (2000) also claim that there is relatively little systematic evaluation and a shortage of good evaluations. Moreover, what is available is generally weak. According to AG (2007), the reasons for the lack of evaluation of community safety programs have not been studied extensively, but social, political and financial considerations are likely to have a strong influence. Evaluation studies consume resources, and therefore are competing for the limited resources available and must be justified by the value of the information which they provide. There are also several other relevant factors including the limited knowledge and experience of evaluation theory and practice of many program managers and organisers. In addition, evaluation evidence is often seen as bad news since program objectives tend to be over-optimistic and hence are rarely fully met; a situation that evaluation might expose. LACK OF SUPPORT AND INITIATIVE According to Community Safety Centre (2000), little time and resources are available for conducting evaluation. When evaluation does occur, the size does matter. It can depend on how large the partnership is as to the resources that they have available for evaluation (Cherney and Sutton 2004). Often in small partnerships no money is put aside for evaluation. Since majority of serious evaluations are going to be expensive, this can particularly be a problem for small projects where a good evaluation may take up a relatively large proportion of the project budget. Thus, very often people will argue that this is an unnecessary cost. Furthermore, practitioners very often feel that they can themselves quiet easily tell whether or not something has been a success. Community Safety Centre (2000) concludes that recommendations that something works, by people who were involved in implementing the initiative, are often based on relatively weak evaluation evidence commonly relying on more gener al impressions that are usually not objective enough. In Australia, for example, neither central nor regional government has so far encouraged evaluators to undertake their own evaluation (Cherney and Sutton 2004). Community Safety Centre (2000) and Morton (2006) also claim that there is a lack of commitment from central government and local agencies, arguing that the problem lies in attracting and maintaining involvement of people and agencies that really are not interested in crime prevention or community safety. According to Morton (2006), evaluators have only been required to produce quarterly reports with milestones for the future and not to undertake a real reflection on a project, including writing a review on the project and analysing available data. All evaluators have to do is monitor whether money is being spent on outputs. Read and Tilley (2000) argue that there is little attention paid to how initiatives may have had their effects. There is not enough investment or requirement for evaluation. According to Varone, Jacob and De Winter (2005), policy evaluation is an underdeveloped tool of Belgian public governance. They claim that it is partitocracy, weakness of Parliament vis-à  -vis the government, and the federalisation process that is characteristic of the recent institutional evolution of the country, that jeopardise the development of a mature evaluation culture. TECHNICAL DIFFUCULTIES Evaluators might find barriers at each of the evaluation steps, including problem formulation, design of instruments, research deign, data collection, data analysis, findings and conclusions and utilisation (Hagan 2000). In respect to problem formulation, evaluation researchers are often in a hurry to get on with the task without thoroughly grounding the evaluation in the major theoretical issues in the field. Glaser and Zeigler (1974) claim that much of what is regarded as in-house evaluations has been co opted and is little more than head counting or the production of tables for annual reports. Further problem is the absence of standardised definitions. The confusion over definitions has not only impeded communication among researchers and, more importantly, between researchers and practitioners, but also has hindered comparisons and replications of research studies. Furthermore, although evaluators would prefer control over treatment and a classic experimental design, with random assignment of cases to experimental and control groups, this seldom happens. In many instances it is very difficult to find organisations that would be willing to undergo experimentation, particularly if it involves the denial of certain treatments (control group) to some clients. The program planners and staff may resists randomisation as means of allocations treatments, arguing for assignment based on need or merit. The design may not be correctly carried out, resulting in nonequivalent experimental and control groups. The design may break down as some people refuse to participate or drop out of different treatment groups (experimental mortality). Some feel that randomised designs create focused inequality because some groups receive treatment others desire and thus can cause reactions that could be confused with treatments. Much of the bemoaning concerning the inadequacy of research design in evaluation methodology has arisen because of an over-commitment to experimental designs, and a deficient appreciation of the utility of post hoc controls by means of multivariety statistical techniques. It may be that more rapid progress can be made in the evolution of preventive programs if research designs are based on statistical rather than experimental model. One major difficulty in evaluation research is in procuring adequate control groups. In respect to data collection, one principal shortcoming of much evaluation research has been its over reliance on questionnaires as the primary means of data gathering. Program supporters will jump on methodological or procedural problems in any evaluation that comes to a negative conclusion. Hagan (2000) also lists other obstacles to evaluation, including unsound and poorly done data analysis, unethical evaluations, naive and unprepared evaluation staff, and poor relationships between evaluation and program staff. Community Safety Centre (2000) argues that, unlike experimental researchers, evaluators often have difficulty comparing their experimental groups with a control group. Although evaluators might attempt to find a similar group to compare with, it is usually impossible to apply the ideal experimental rigor of randomly allocating individuals to an experimental condition and a control condition. According to AG (2007), those responsible for commissioning or conducting evaluation studies also need to take account of the local social, cultural and political context if the evaluations are to produce evidence that is not only useful, but used. According to Morton (2006), some evaluators have stressed their incompetence, claming that they do not know how to undertake evaluation. Schuller (2004) has referred to the lack of accuracy in their predictions, partly due to a lack of post-auditing information. She further argues that evaluators apply a narrow scope that stresses well-established knowledge of local impacts, whilst underplaying wider geographical, systematic, or time factors. Evaluation research can be a complex and difficult task (Community Safety Centre 2000). Evaluators are often described by a lack of control over, and even knowledge of, wide range of factors which may or may not impact on the performance indicators. While evaluating a single crime prevention initiative may be difficult enough, evaluating a full community safety project may be many times more complicated. The intervention package often impacts beyond the target area and this impact needs to be anticipated. As an additional complication, evaluation research can itself have an impact on the outcome of an initiative. A secondary role of the audit process is to raise awareness and build support for the initiative in the affected community. ACCESS TO DATA A commonly reported problem with evaluation has been access to relevant data (Morton 2006). Morton (2006) claims that it is often hard to get good baseline data against which to evaluate a project, mainly because procedures and resources for appropriate multi-agency data collection and mapping are not in place. Often the relevant data is not recorded or collated across services and analysed together to give a complete picture of the problem. Furthermore, partnerships often lack appropriate analytical skills to use quantitative data (Morton 2006). According to Hagan (2000), if proper data for evaluation are absent and clear outcomes or criteria of organisational success are absent, then a proper evaluation cannot be undertaken. The success of the entire evaluation process hinges on the motivation of the administrator and organisation in calling for an evaluation in the first place. It should be possible to locate specific organisational objectives that are measurable. The key assumptions of the program must be stated in a form which can be tested objectively. However, this often does not happen in practice. POLITICAL PRESSURE Political pressure can present another problem for evaluators. Administrators often want to spend all the funding available on implementation as opposed to evaluation (Morton 2006). Thus, being aware of the political context of a program is a precondition for useable evaluation research (AG 2007). Evaluation research requires the active support and cooperation of the agency or program to be evaluated (Hagan 2000). However, the program administrator’s desire to reaffirm his or her position with favorable program evaluations may conflict with the evaluator’s desire to acquire an objective appraisal of a program’s impact. The end result may be either a research design with low scientific credibility and tainted results, or a credible study that never receives a public hearing because the administrator does not like the results. According to Read and Tilley (2000), few evaluations are independent and evidence is used selectively. There is undue satisfaction with redu ction as an indicator that the initiative was effective without attention to alternative explanations, or to possible side-effects. They further argue that 84% of evaluations they studied were conducted by the initiative coordinator or staff, and only 9% were by an independent external evaluator. Thus, it is challenging for partnerships to persuade for funding to be put aside for evaluation. Evaluator’s job is also affected by balancing the need to be strategic and pressure to produce â€Å"runs on the board† by local authorities and central agencies, as well as the greater value placed on â€Å"projects† compared to â€Å"planning† within local authorities (Cherney and Sutton 2004). According to Hagan (2000), even the best laid evaluation plans can â€Å"bite the dust† in the â€Å"high noon† of political reality. In discussing the politicisation of evaluation research, Hagan (2000) points out the incasing political nature of evaluations as they are increasingly used to decide the future of programs. According to him, part of the administrator’s concern about evaluation research comes from the dilemma that research creates for him. The evaluation process casts him in contradictory roles. On the one hand, he is the key person in the agency, and the success of its various operations, including evaluation, depends on his knowledge and involvement. On the other hand, evaluation carries the potentiality of discrediting an administratively sponsored program or of undermining a position the administrator has taken. MURPHY’S LAW Hagan (2000) applies Murphy’s Law to evaluation research, clearly indicated barriers that evaluator faces. In relation to evaluation design: the resources needed to complete the evaluation will exceed the original projection by a factor of two. after an evaluation has been completed and is believed to control for all relevant variables, others will be discovered and rival hypothesis will multiply geometrically the necessity of making a major decision change increases as the evaluation project nears completion. In relation to evaluation management: the probability of a breakdown in cooperation between the evaluation project and an operational agency is directly proportional to the trouble it can cause. if staying on schedule is dependent on a number of activities which may be completed before or after an allotted time interval, the total time needed will accumulate in the direction of becoming further and further behind schedule. In relation to data collection: the availability of data element is inversely proportional to the need for that element historical baseline data will be recorded in units or by criteria other than present or future records none of the available self-report formats will work as well as you expect In relation to data analysis and interpretation: in a mathematical calculation, any error that can creep in, will. It will accumulate in the direction that will do the most damage to the results of the calculation. the figure that is most obviously correct will be the source of error if an analysis matrix requires â€Å"n† data elements to make the analysis easy and logical, there will always be â€Å"n-1† available. When tabulating data, the line totals and the column totals should up to the grand total; they won’t In relation to presentation of evaluation findings: the more extensive and thorough the evaluation the less likely the findings will be used by decision makers. UTILISATION Evaluator is often approaching his or her job knowing that evaluation results are often not appropriately utilised. This might significantly impact his or her performance. Hagan (2000) claims that evaluations have not been effectively utilised, and that much of this waste is due to passive bias and censorship within the field itself, which prevent the publication of weaker, less scientific findings, and to misplace client loyalty. Cherney and Sutton (2004) argue that there has been a lack of status and authority within the overall structure of local government to facilitate change in polices and practices. Furthermore, there are agencies and units both within local authorities and externally who are unwilling to be held accountable for community safety outcomes. According to Schuller (2004), there has been inadequate organisation, scheduling and institutional integration into the overall decision-making process, with impact assessment often undertaken towards the end. It has also bee n suggested that the most pertinent issue may be, not to predict accurately, but to define appropriate goals, and then set up the organisation that can effectively adapt and audit the project to achieve goals. CONCLUSION The paper has discussed the main problems confronting those who must evaluate community safety initiatives, looking at the issues of support and initiative, technical difficulties, access to data, political pressure, and low utilisation. Proper evaluations of community safety initiatives are rare. Little time and resources is available for conducting evaluation and there is a lack of commitment from government and local agencies. Barriers have been experienced throughout the evaluation process, including problem formulation, design of instruments, research deign, data collection, data analysis, findings and conclusions and utilisation. Further barriers have been presented by lack of focus on the local social, cultural and political context. Some evaluators have even stressed their incompetence, claming that they do not know how to undertake evaluation. Relevant data is often not recorded or collated to give a complete picture of the problem. Political pressure also presents a signifi cant problem as administrators find themselves in contradictory roles. Furthermore, they often want to spend all the funding available on implementation as opposed to evaluation. Finally, evaluation results have not been effectively utilised, which can have a significant negative impact on evaluators. BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Government Attorney Generals Department (AG). (2007). â€Å"Conceptual Foundations of Evaluation Models†. Cherney, A and Sutton, A. (2004). Aussie Experience: local government community safety officers and capacity building†. Community Safety Journal, Vol.3, Iss.3, pg.31. Community Safety Centre (2000). â€Å"Research and Evaluation†. Community Safety research and Evaluation Bulletin†. No.1. Glaser, D. and Zeigler, M.S. 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